నెల్లూరు: మనుబోలు మండలం బద్వేలు క్రాస్రోడ్డు దగ్గర కారు బోల్తా, ముగ్గురికి గాయాలు|కర్నూలు: 16 వ రోజు జగన్ ప్రజా సంకల్ప యాత్ర|రంగారెడ్డి: మైలార్దేవ్పల్లిలో కింగ్స్ కాలనీలో ముస్తఫా అనే వ్యక్తిపై దుండగుల కాల్పులు|కడప: జగన్ సీఎం అయితే తన ఆస్తులు పెరుగుతాయి..చంద్రబాబు సీఎంగా ఉంటే ప్రజల ఆస్తులు పెరుగుతాయి: మంత్రి సోమిరెడ్డి|సిరిసిల్ల: అన్ని గ్రామాల్లో కేసీఆర్ గ్రామీణ ప్రగతి ప్రాంగణాలు నిర్మిస్తాం: మంత్రి కేటీఆర్|హైదరాబాద్: బంజారాహిల్స్ పోలీస్ స్టేషన్లో యూసుఫ్గూడ కార్పొరేటర్ తమ్ముడిపై కేసు నమోదు|అమరావతి: చీఫ్విప్గా పల్లె రఘునాథరెడ్డి పేరు, శాసనమండలి చీఫ్ విప్గా పయ్యావుల కేశవ్ పేరు ఖరారు|అనంతపురం: జెట్ ఎయిర్వేస్లో ఉద్యోగాల పేరుతో మోసం, రూ.14 లక్షలు వసూలు చేసిన యువకుడు|ఢిల్లీ: సరి, బేసి విధానానికి ఎన్జీటీ గ్రీన్సిగ్నల్, కాలుష్యం పెరిగినప్పుడు అమలు చేసుకోవచ్చన్న ఎన్జీటీ|శ్రీకాకుళం: వైసీపీ ఎమ్మెల్యేల గొంతు నొక్కుతున్నారు.. నిరసనగా అసెంబ్లీని బహిష్కరించాం: వైసీపీ నేత ధర్మాన
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CHEMISTRY
6.Thermodynamics
6.0.Introduction
6.1. Thermodynamic Terms
6.1.1. The System and Surroundings
6.1.2. Types of System
6.1.3. The State of the System
6.1.4. The Internal Energy as a State Function
6.2. Applications
6.2.1. Work
6.2.1. Work
6.2.2. Enthalpy, H
(a) A Useful New State Function
(b) Extensive and Intensive Properties
( c) Heat Capacity
(d) The Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas
6.3. Measurement of U and H: Calorimetry
6.4. Enthalpy Change – Reaction Enthalpy
(a) Standard Enthalpy of Reactions
(b) Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations
( c) Standard Enthalpy of Formation
(d) Thermochemical Equations
(e) Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation
6.5. Enthalpies of Different Types of Reactions
(a) Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
(b) Enthalpy of Atomization
(c ) Bond Enthalpy
(d) Enthalpy of Solution
(d) Enthalpy of Solution
(d) Enthalpy of Solution
6.6 Spontaneity
(a) Is decrease in Enthalpy a criterion for Spontaneity?
(b) Entropy and Spontaneity
( c) Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity
6.7. Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium
1.Some Basic Points of Chemistry
1.1. Importance of Chemistry
1.2. Nature of Matter
1.3. Properties of Matter and their Measurement
1.3.1. International System of Units
1.3.2. Mass & Weight
1.4. Uncertainty in Measurement
1.4.1. Scientific Notation
1.4.2. Significant Figures
1.4.3. Dimensional Analysis
1.5. Laws of Chemical Combinations
1.5.1. Law of Conservative Mass
1.5.2. Law of Definite Proportions
1.5.3. Law of Multiple Proportions
1.5.4. Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volumes
1.5.5. Avogadro Law
1.6. Dalton's Atomic Theory
1.7. Atomic and Molecular Masses
1.7.1. Atomic Mass
1.7.2. Average Atomic Mass
1.7.3. Molecular Mass
1.7.4. Formula Mass
1.8. Mole Concept and Molar Masses
1.9. Percentage Composition
1.9.1. Empirical Formula for Molecular Formula
1.10. Stoichometry and Stoichometric Calculations
1.10.0.Balancing Chemical Equations
1.10.1. Limiting Reagent
1.10.2. Reactions in Solutions
2.Structure of Atom
2.0.Introduction
2.1. Sub Atomic Particles
2.1.1. Discovery of Electron
2.1.2. Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron
2.1.3. Charge on Electron
2.1.4. Discovery of Protons and Neutrons
2.2. Atomic Models
2.2.1. Thomson Model of Atom
2.2.2. Rutherford's Model of Atom
2.2.3. Atomic Number and Mass Number
2.2.4. Isobars and Isotopes
2.2.5. Drawbacks of Rutherford Model
2.3. Developments leading to the BOHR's Model of Atom
2.3.1. Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.3.2. Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck's Quantum Theory
2.3.2.1.Photo Electric Effect
2.3.2.2.Duel Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.3.3. Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels: Atomic Spectra
2.3.3.1.Emission and Absorption Spectra
2.3.3.2.Line Emission Spectra
2.3.3.3.Rydberg Constant
2.4. BOHR's Model for Hydrogen Atom
2.4.1. Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
2.4.2. Limitations of BOHR's Model
2.5. Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
2.5.1. Dual Behavior of Matter
2.5.2. Heisenberg's uncertainty Principle
2.5.3.Significance of Uncertainty Principle
2.5.4.Reasons for the failure of the BOHR Model
2.6. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
2.6.1. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
2.6.1. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
2.6.2. Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
2.6.3. Energies of Orbitals
2.6.3. Energies of Orbitals
2.6.4. Filling of Orbitals in Atom
2.6.5. Electronic Configuration of Atom
2.6.5. Electronic Configuration of Atom
2.6.6. Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Shells
3.Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
3.1. Why do We need to Classify Elements?
3.2. Genesis of Periodic Classification
3.3. Modern Periodic \Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table
3.3. Modern Periodic \Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table
3.4. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers >100
3.4. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers >100
3.5. Electronic Configuration of Elements and the Periodic Table
3.6. Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: s-,p-d-,f- Blocks
3.6.1. s-Block Elements
3.6.2. p-Block Elements
3.6.3. d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
3.6.4. The f-Block Elements (Inner Transition Elements
3.6.5. Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
3.7. Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
3.7.1. Trends in Physical Properties
(a) Atomic Radius
(b) Ionic Radius
( c) Ionization Enthalpy
(d) Electron Gain Enthalpy
(e) Electronegativity
3.7.2. Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
(a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
(b) Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
3.7.3. Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
4.Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
4.0.Introduction
4.1. kossel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
4.1.1. Octet Rule
4.1.2. Covalent Bond
4.1.3. Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules (The Lewis Structure)
4.1.4. Formal Charge
4.1.5. Limitations of the Octet Rule
4.2. Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
4.2.1. Lattice Enthalpy
4.3. Bond Parameters
4.3.1. Bond Length
4.3.2. Bond Angle
4.3.3. Bond Enthalpy
4.3.4. Bond Order
4.3.5. Resonance Structures
4.3.6. Polarity of Bonds
4.4. The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
4.5. Valence Bond Theory
4.5.1. Orbital Overlap Concept
4.5.2. Directional Properties of Bonds
4.5.3. Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals
4.5.4. Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
4.5.4. Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
4.5.5. Strength of Sigma and Pi Bonds
4.6. Hybridization
4.6.1. Types of Hybridization
4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization
4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization
4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization
4.6.3. Hybridization of Elements Involving d Orbitals
4.7. Molecular Orbital Theory
4.7.1. Formation of Molecular Orbitals Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
4.7.2. Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals
4.7.3. Types of Molecular Orbitals
4.7.4. Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals
4.7.5. Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behavior
4.8. Bonding in some Homo nuclear Diatomic Molecules
4.9. Hydrogen Bonding
4.9.1. Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond
4.9.2. Types of H-Bonds
5.States of Matter
5.0.Introduction
5.1. Intermolecular Forces
5.1.1. Dispersion of Forces or London Forces
5.1.2. Dipole – Dipole Forces
5.1.3. Dipole – Induced Dipole Forces
5.1.4. Hydrogen Bond
5.2. Thermal Energy
5.3. Intermolecular Forces Vs Thermal Interactions
5.3. Intermolecular Forces Vs Thermal Interactions
5.4. The Gaseous State
5.5. The Gas Laws
5.5.1. Boyle's Law (Pressure – Volume Relationship)
5.5.2. Charles' Law (Temperature – Volume Relationship)
5.5.3. Gay Lussac's Law (Pressure – Temperature Relationship)
5.5.4. Avogadro Law ( Volume – Amount Relationship)
5.6. Ideal Gas Equation
5.6.1. Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance
5.6.2. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
5.7. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
5.8. Behavior of Real Gases; Deviation from Ideal Gas Behavior
5.9. Liquifaction of Gases
5.10. Liquid State
5.10.1. Vapor Pressure
5.10.2. Surface Tension
5.10.3. Viscosity
7.Equilibrium
7.0.Introduction
7.1. Equilibrium in Physical Processes
7.1.1. Solid-Liquid Equilibrium
7.1.2. Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium
7.1.3. Solid-Vapor Equilibrium
7.1.4. Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Sold or Gases in Liquids
7.1.5. General Characteristic of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes
7.2. Equilibrium in Chemical Processes – Dynamic Equilibrium
7.3. Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant
7.4. Homogeneous Equilibria
7.4.1. Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous System
7.5. Heterogeneous Equilibria
7.6. Applications of Equilibrium Constants
7.6.1. Predicting the Extent of a Reaction
7.6.2. Predicting the Direction of the Reaction
7.6.3. Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
7.7. Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant k, Reaction Quotient g and Gibbs Energy G
7.8. Factors Affecting Equilibria
7.8.1. Effect of Concentration Change
7.8.2. Effect of Pressure Change
7.8.3. Effect of Inert Gas Addition
7.8.4. Effect of Temperature Change
7.8.5. Effect of a Catalyst
7.9. Ionic Equilibrium in Solution
7.10. Acids, Bases and Salts
7.10.1. Arrhenius concept of Acids and Bases
7.10.2. The Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
7.10.3. Lewis Acids and Bases
7.11. Ionization of Acids and Bases
7.11.1. The Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic Product
7.11.2. The pH Scale
7.11.3. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
7.11.4. Ionization of Weak Bases
7.11.5. Relation Between Ka and Kb
7.11.6. Di- and Poly basic Acids and Di- and Poly Acidic Bases
7.11.7. Factors Affecting Acid Strength
7.11.8. Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases
7.11.9. Hydrolysis of Salts and pH of their Solutions
7.12. Buffer Solutions
7.13. Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts
7.13.1. Solubility Product Constant
7.13.2. Common Ion Effect on Solubility of Ionic Salts
8.Redox Reactions
8.0.Introduction
8.1. Classical Idea of Redox Reactions – Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
8.2. Redox Reactions in terms of Electron Transfer Reactions
8.2. Redox Reactions in terms of Electron Transfer Reactions
8.2.1. Competetive Electron Transfer Reactions
8.3. Oxidation Number
8.3.1. Types of Redox Reactions
8.3.4. Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number
8.4. Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes
9.Hydrogen
9.0.Introduction
9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table
9.2.Di Hydrogen, H2
9.2.1. Occurance
9.2.2. Isotopes of Hydrogen
9.3. Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2
9.3.1. Laboratory Preparation of Dihydrogen
9.3.2. Commercial Production of Dihydrogen
9.4. Properties of Dihydrogen
9.4.1.Physical Properties
9.4.2. Chemical Properties
9.4.3. Uses of Dihydrogen
9.5. Hydrides
9.5.1. Ionic or Saline Hydrides
9.5.2. Covalent or Molecular Hydride
9.5.3. Metallic or Non-Stoichiometric (or Interstitial) Hydrides
9.6. Water
9.6.1. Physical Properties of Water
9.6.2. Structure of Water
9.6.3. Structure of Ice
9.6.4. Chemical Properties of Water
9.6.5. Hard and Soft Water
9.6.6. Temporary Hard Water
9.6.7. permanent Hard Water
9.7. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
9.7.1. Preparation
9.7.2. Physical Properties
9.7.3. Structure
9.7.4. Chemical Properties
9.7.5. Storage
9.7.6. Uses
9.8. Heavy Water (D2O)
9.9. Dihydrogen as Fuel
10.The s-Block Elements
10.0.Introduction
10.1. Group 1 Elements: Alkali Metals
10.1.1. Electronic Configuration
10.1.2. Atomic and Ionic Radii
10.1.3. Ionization Enthalpy
10.1.4. Hydration Enthalpy
10.1.5. Physical Properties
10.1.6. Chemical Properties
10.1.7. Uses
10.2. General Characteristic of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals
10.2.1. Oxides and Hydroxides
10.2.2. Halides
10.2.3. Salts and Oxo-Acids
10.3. Anomalous Properties of Lithium
10.3. Anomalous Properties of Lithium
10.3.1. Points of Difference Between Lithium and Other Alkali Metals
10.3.2. Points of Similarities Between Lithium and Magnesium
10.4. Some Important Compounds of Sodium
10.5. Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium
10.6. Group 2 Elements: Alkaline Earth Metals
10.6.1. Electronic Configuration
10.6.2. Atomic and Ionic Radii
10.6.3. Ionization Enthalpies
10.6.4. Hydration Enthalpies
10.6.5. Physical Properties
10.6.6. Chemical Properties
10.6.7. Uses
10.7. General Characteristics of Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals
10.8 Anomalous behavior of Beryllium
10.8.1. Diagonal Relationship Between Beryllium and Aluminum
10.9. Some Important Compounds of Calcium
10.10 Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium
11. The p-Block Elements
11.0.Introduction
11.1. Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family
11.1.1. Electronic Configuration
11.1.2/ Atomic Radii
11.1.3. Ionizatin Enthalpy
11.1.4. Electronegativity
11.1.5. Physical Properties
11.1.6. Chemical Properties
11.2. Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron
10.3. Important Compounds of Boron
10.3.1. Borax
10.3.2. Orthoboric Acid
10.3.3. Diborane
11.4. Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds
11.5. Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family
11.5.1. Electronic Configuration
11.5.2. Covalent Radius
11.5.3. Ionization Enthalpy
11.5.4. Electronegativity
11.5.5. Physical Properties
11.5.6. Chemical Properties
11.6. Important Trends and Anomalous Behavior of Carbon
11.7. Allotropes of Carbon
11.7.1. Diamond
11.7.2. Graphite
11.7.3. Fullerenes
11.7.4. Uses of Carbon
11.8. Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
11.8.1. Carbon Monoxide
11.8.2. Carbon Dioxide
11.8.3. Silicon Dioxide
11.8.4. Silicons
11.8.5. Silicates
11.8.6. Ziolites
11.8.6. Ziolites
12.Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques
12.1. General Introduction
12.2. Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds
12.2.1. Shapes of Carbon Compounds
12.2.2. Some Characteristic Feature of Pi Bonds
12.3. Structural Representations of Organic Compounds
12.3.1. Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas
12.3.1. Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas
12.3.2. Three Dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules
12.4. Classification of Organic Compounds
12.5. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
12.5.1. The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
12.5.3. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds having Functional Group(s)
12.5.4. Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds
12.6. Isomerism
12.6.1. Structural Isomerism
12.6.2. Sterioisomerism
12.7. Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism
12.7.1. Fission of a Covalent Bond
12.7.2. Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
12.7.3. Electron Movement in Organic Reactions
12.7.4. Electron Displacement effects in Covalent Bonds
12.7.5. Inductive Effect
12.7.6. Resonance Structure
12.7.7. Resonance Effect
12.7.8. Electromeric Effect
12.7.9. Hyper Conjugation
12.7.10. Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms
12.8. Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds
12.8.1. Sublimation
12.8.2. Crystallization
12.8.3. Distillation
12.8.4. Differential Extraction
12.9. Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds
12.9.1. Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen
12.9.2. Detection of Other Elements
12.10. Quantitative Analysis
12.10.1. Carbon and Hydrogen
12.10.2. Nitrogen
12.10.2. Nitrogen
12.10.3. Halogens
12.10.4. Sulphur
12.10.5. Phosphorus
12.10.6. Oxygen
13.Hydrocarbons
13.0.Introduction
13.1. Classification
13.2. Alkanes
13.2.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism
13.2.2. Preparation
13.2.2. Preparation
13.2.2. Preparation
13.2.3. Properties
13.2.3. Properties
13.2.3. Properties
13.2.4. Conformations
13.3. Alkenes
13.3.1. Structre of Double Bond
13.3.2. Nomenclature
13.3.3. Isomerism
13.3.4. Preparation
13.3.5. Properties
13.3.5. Properties
13.4. Alkynes
13.4.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism
13.4.2. Structure of Triple Bond
13.4.3. Preparation
13.4.4. Properties
13.4.4. Properties
13.5. Aromatic Hydrocarbon
13.5.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism
13.5.2. Structure of Benzene
13.5.3. Aromaticity
13.5.4. Preparation of Benzene
13.5.5. Properties
13.6. Carcinogenicity and Toxicity
14.Environmental Chemistry
14.1. Environmental Pollution
14.2. Atmospheric Pollution
14.2.1. Tropospheric Pollution
14.2.2. Stratospheric Pollution
14.3. Water Pollution
14.3.1. Causes for Water Pollution
14.3.2. Internal Standards for Drinking Water
14.4. Soil Pollution
14.4.1. Pesticides
14.5. Industrial Waste
14.6. Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution
14.6.1. Waste Management
14.7. Green Chemistry
14.7.1. Introduction
14.7.2. Green Chemistry in day to day life