6.Thermodynamics

6.0.Introduction

6.1. Thermodynamic Terms

6.1.1. The System and Surroundings

6.1.2. Types of System

6.1.3. The State of the System

6.1.4. The Internal Energy as a State Function

6.2. Applications

6.2.1. Work

6.2.1. Work

6.2.2. Enthalpy, H

(a) A Useful New State Function

(b) Extensive and Intensive Properties

( c) Heat Capacity

(d) The Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas

6.3. Measurement of U and H: Calorimetry

6.4. Enthalpy Change – Reaction Enthalpy

(a) Standard Enthalpy of Reactions

(b) Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations

( c) Standard Enthalpy of Formation

(d) Thermochemical Equations

(e) Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation

6.5. Enthalpies of Different Types of Reactions

(a) Standard Enthalpy of Combustion

(b) Enthalpy of Atomization

(c ) Bond Enthalpy

(d) Enthalpy of Solution

(d) Enthalpy of Solution

(d) Enthalpy of Solution

6.6 Spontaneity

(a) Is decrease in Enthalpy a criterion for Spontaneity?

(b) Entropy and Spontaneity

( c) Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity

6.7. Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium

1.Some Basic Points of Chemistry

1.1. Importance of Chemistry

1.2. Nature of Matter

1.3. Properties of Matter and their Measurement

1.3.1. International System of Units

1.3.2. Mass & Weight

1.4. Uncertainty in Measurement

1.4.1. Scientific Notation

1.4.2. Significant Figures

1.4.3. Dimensional Analysis

1.5. Laws of Chemical Combinations

1.5.1. Law of Conservative Mass

1.5.2. Law of Definite Proportions

1.5.3. Law of Multiple Proportions

1.5.4. Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volumes

1.5.5. Avogadro Law

1.6. Dalton's Atomic Theory

1.7. Atomic and Molecular Masses

1.7.1. Atomic Mass

1.7.2. Average Atomic Mass

1.7.3. Molecular Mass

1.7.4. Formula Mass

1.8. Mole Concept and Molar Masses

1.9. Percentage Composition

1.9.1. Empirical Formula for Molecular Formula

1.10. Stoichometry and Stoichometric Calculations

1.10.0.Balancing Chemical Equations

1.10.1. Limiting Reagent

1.10.2. Reactions in Solutions

2.Structure of Atom

2.0.Introduction

2.1. Sub Atomic Particles

2.1.1. Discovery of Electron

2.1.2. Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron

2.1.3. Charge on Electron

2.1.4. Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

2.2. Atomic Models

2.2.1. Thomson Model of Atom

2.2.2. Rutherford's Model of Atom

2.2.3. Atomic Number and Mass Number

2.2.4. Isobars and Isotopes

2.2.5. Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

2.3. Developments leading to the BOHR's Model of Atom

2.3.1. Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

2.3.2. Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck's Quantum Theory

2.3.2.1.Photo Electric Effect

2.3.2.2.Duel Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation

2.3.3. Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels: Atomic Spectra

2.3.3.1.Emission and Absorption Spectra

2.3.3.2.Line Emission Spectra

2.3.3.3.Rydberg Constant

2.4. BOHR's Model for Hydrogen Atom

2.4.1. Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

2.4.2. Limitations of BOHR's Model

2.5. Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

2.5.1. Dual Behavior of Matter

2.5.2. Heisenberg's uncertainty Principle

2.5.3.Significance of Uncertainty Principle

2.5.4.Reasons for the failure of the BOHR Model

2.6. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

2.6.1. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

2.6.1. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

2.6.2. Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

2.6.3. Energies of Orbitals

2.6.3. Energies of Orbitals

2.6.4. Filling of Orbitals in Atom

2.6.5. Electronic Configuration of Atom

2.6.5. Electronic Configuration of Atom

2.6.6. Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Shells

3.Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

3.1. Why do We need to Classify Elements?

3.2. Genesis of Periodic Classification

3.3. Modern Periodic \Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table

3.3. Modern Periodic \Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table

3.4. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers >100

3.4. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers >100

3.5. Electronic Configuration of Elements and the Periodic Table

3.6. Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: s-,p-d-,f- Blocks

3.6.1. s-Block Elements

3.6.2. p-Block Elements

3.6.3. d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)

3.6.4. The f-Block Elements (Inner Transition Elements

3.6.5. Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids

3.7. Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements

3.7.1. Trends in Physical Properties

(a) Atomic Radius

(b) Ionic Radius

( c) Ionization Enthalpy

(d) Electron Gain Enthalpy

(e) Electronegativity

3.7.2. Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

(a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States

(b) Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements

3.7.3. Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

4.Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

4.0.Introduction

4.1. kossel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding

4.1.1. Octet Rule

4.1.2. Covalent Bond

4.1.3. Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules (The Lewis Structure)

4.1.4. Formal Charge

4.1.5. Limitations of the Octet Rule

4.2. Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

4.2.1. Lattice Enthalpy

4.3. Bond Parameters

4.3.1. Bond Length

4.3.2. Bond Angle

4.3.3. Bond Enthalpy

4.3.4. Bond Order

4.3.5. Resonance Structures

4.3.6. Polarity of Bonds

4.4. The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

4.5. Valence Bond Theory

4.5.1. Orbital Overlap Concept

4.5.2. Directional Properties of Bonds

4.5.3. Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals

4.5.4. Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds

4.5.4. Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds

4.5.5. Strength of Sigma and Pi Bonds

4.6. Hybridization

4.6.1. Types of Hybridization

4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization

4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization

4.6.2. Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridization

4.6.3. Hybridization of Elements Involving d Orbitals

4.7. Molecular Orbital Theory

4.7.1. Formation of Molecular Orbitals Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

4.7.2. Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals

4.7.3. Types of Molecular Orbitals

4.7.4. Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals

4.7.5. Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behavior

4.8. Bonding in some Homo nuclear Diatomic Molecules

4.9. Hydrogen Bonding

4.9.1. Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond

4.9.2. Types of H-Bonds

5.States of Matter

5.0.Introduction

5.1. Intermolecular Forces

5.1.1. Dispersion of Forces or London Forces

5.1.2. Dipole – Dipole Forces

5.1.3. Dipole – Induced Dipole Forces

5.1.4. Hydrogen Bond

5.2. Thermal Energy

5.3. Intermolecular Forces Vs Thermal Interactions

5.3. Intermolecular Forces Vs Thermal Interactions

5.4. The Gaseous State

5.5. The Gas Laws

5.5.1. Boyle's Law (Pressure – Volume Relationship)

5.5.2. Charles' Law (Temperature – Volume Relationship)

5.5.3. Gay Lussac's Law (Pressure – Temperature Relationship)

5.5.4. Avogadro Law ( Volume – Amount Relationship)

5.6. Ideal Gas Equation

5.6.1. Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance

5.6.2. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

5.7. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

5.8. Behavior of Real Gases; Deviation from Ideal Gas Behavior

5.9. Liquifaction of Gases

5.10. Liquid State

5.10.1. Vapor Pressure

5.10.2. Surface Tension

5.10.3. Viscosity

7.Equilibrium

7.0.Introduction

7.1. Equilibrium in Physical Processes

7.1.1. Solid-Liquid Equilibrium

7.1.2. Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium

7.1.3. Solid-Vapor Equilibrium

7.1.4. Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Sold or Gases in Liquids

7.1.5. General Characteristic of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes

7.2. Equilibrium in Chemical Processes – Dynamic Equilibrium

7.3. Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant

7.4. Homogeneous Equilibria

7.4.1. Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous System

7.5. Heterogeneous Equilibria

7.6. Applications of Equilibrium Constants

7.6.1. Predicting the Extent of a Reaction

7.6.2. Predicting the Direction of the Reaction

7.6.3. Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

7.7. Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant k, Reaction Quotient g and Gibbs Energy G

7.8. Factors Affecting Equilibria

7.8.1. Effect of Concentration Change

7.8.2. Effect of Pressure Change

7.8.3. Effect of Inert Gas Addition

7.8.4. Effect of Temperature Change

7.8.5. Effect of a Catalyst

7.9. Ionic Equilibrium in Solution

7.10. Acids, Bases and Salts

7.10.1. Arrhenius concept of Acids and Bases

7.10.2. The Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

7.10.3. Lewis Acids and Bases

7.11. Ionization of Acids and Bases

7.11.1. The Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic Product

7.11.2. The pH Scale

7.11.3. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids

7.11.4. Ionization of Weak Bases

7.11.5. Relation Between Ka and Kb

7.11.6. Di- and Poly basic Acids and Di- and Poly Acidic Bases

7.11.7. Factors Affecting Acid Strength

7.11.8. Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases

7.11.9. Hydrolysis of Salts and pH of their Solutions

7.12. Buffer Solutions

7.13. Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts

7.13.1. Solubility Product Constant

7.13.2. Common Ion Effect on Solubility of Ionic Salts

8.Redox Reactions

8.0.Introduction

8.1. Classical Idea of Redox Reactions – Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

8.2. Redox Reactions in terms of Electron Transfer Reactions

8.2. Redox Reactions in terms of Electron Transfer Reactions

8.2.1. Competetive Electron Transfer Reactions

8.3. Oxidation Number

8.3.1. Types of Redox Reactions

8.3.4. Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number

8.4. Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes

9.Hydrogen

9.0.Introduction

9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table

9.2.Di Hydrogen, H2

9.2.1. Occurance

9.2.2. Isotopes of Hydrogen

9.3. Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2

9.3.1. Laboratory Preparation of Dihydrogen

9.3.2. Commercial Production of Dihydrogen

9.4. Properties of Dihydrogen

9.4.1.Physical Properties

9.4.2. Chemical Properties

9.4.3. Uses of Dihydrogen

9.5. Hydrides

9.5.1. Ionic or Saline Hydrides

9.5.2. Covalent or Molecular Hydride

9.5.3. Metallic or Non-Stoichiometric (or Interstitial) Hydrides

9.6. Water

9.6.1. Physical Properties of Water

9.6.2. Structure of Water

9.6.3. Structure of Ice

9.6.4. Chemical Properties of Water

9.6.5. Hard and Soft Water

9.6.6. Temporary Hard Water

9.6.7. permanent Hard Water

9.7. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)

9.7.1. Preparation

9.7.2. Physical Properties

9.7.3. Structure

9.7.4. Chemical Properties

9.7.5. Storage

9.7.6. Uses

9.8. Heavy Water (D2O)

9.9. Dihydrogen as Fuel

10.The s-Block Elements

10.0.Introduction

10.1. Group 1 Elements: Alkali Metals

10.1.1. Electronic Configuration

10.1.2. Atomic and Ionic Radii

10.1.3. Ionization Enthalpy

10.1.4. Hydration Enthalpy

10.1.5. Physical Properties

10.1.6. Chemical Properties

10.1.7. Uses

10.2. General Characteristic of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals

10.2.1. Oxides and Hydroxides

10.2.2. Halides

10.2.3. Salts and Oxo-Acids

10.3. Anomalous Properties of Lithium

10.3. Anomalous Properties of Lithium

10.3.1. Points of Difference Between Lithium and Other Alkali Metals

10.3.2. Points of Similarities Between Lithium and Magnesium

10.4. Some Important Compounds of Sodium

10.5. Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium

10.6. Group 2 Elements: Alkaline Earth Metals

10.6.1. Electronic Configuration

10.6.2. Atomic and Ionic Radii

10.6.3. Ionization Enthalpies

10.6.4. Hydration Enthalpies

10.6.5. Physical Properties

10.6.6. Chemical Properties

10.6.7. Uses

10.7. General Characteristics of Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals

10.8 Anomalous behavior of Beryllium

10.8.1. Diagonal Relationship Between Beryllium and Aluminum

10.9. Some Important Compounds of Calcium

10.10 Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium

11. The p-Block Elements

11.0.Introduction

11.1. Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family

11.1.1. Electronic Configuration

11.1.2/ Atomic Radii

11.1.3. Ionizatin Enthalpy

11.1.4. Electronegativity

11.1.5. Physical Properties

11.1.6. Chemical Properties

11.2. Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron

10.3. Important Compounds of Boron

10.3.1. Borax

10.3.2. Orthoboric Acid

10.3.3. Diborane

11.4. Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds

11.5. Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family

11.5.1. Electronic Configuration

11.5.2. Covalent Radius

11.5.3. Ionization Enthalpy

11.5.4. Electronegativity

11.5.5. Physical Properties

11.5.6. Chemical Properties

11.6. Important Trends and Anomalous Behavior of Carbon

11.7. Allotropes of Carbon

11.7.1. Diamond

11.7.2. Graphite

11.7.3. Fullerenes

11.7.4. Uses of Carbon

11.8. Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon

11.8.1. Carbon Monoxide

11.8.2. Carbon Dioxide

11.8.3. Silicon Dioxide

11.8.4. Silicons

11.8.5. Silicates

11.8.6. Ziolites

11.8.6. Ziolites

12.Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques

12.1. General Introduction

12.2. Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds

12.2.1. Shapes of Carbon Compounds

12.2.2. Some Characteristic Feature of Pi Bonds

12.3. Structural Representations of Organic Compounds

12.3.1. Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas

12.3.1. Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas

12.3.2. Three Dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules

12.4. Classification of Organic Compounds

12.5. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

12.5.1. The IUPAC System of Nomenclature

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

12.5.3. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds having Functional Group(s)

12.5.4. Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds

12.6. Isomerism

12.6.1. Structural Isomerism

12.6.2. Sterioisomerism

12.7. Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism

12.7.1. Fission of a Covalent Bond

12.7.2. Nucleophiles and Electrophiles

12.7.3. Electron Movement in Organic Reactions

12.7.4. Electron Displacement effects in Covalent Bonds

12.7.5. Inductive Effect

12.7.6. Resonance Structure

12.7.7. Resonance Effect

12.7.8. Electromeric Effect

12.7.9. Hyper Conjugation

12.7.10. Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms

12.8. Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds

12.8.1. Sublimation

12.8.2. Crystallization

12.8.3. Distillation

12.8.4. Differential Extraction

12.9. Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds

12.9.1. Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen

12.9.2. Detection of Other Elements

12.10. Quantitative Analysis

12.10.1. Carbon and Hydrogen

12.10.2. Nitrogen

12.10.2. Nitrogen

12.10.3. Halogens

12.10.4. Sulphur

12.10.5. Phosphorus

12.10.6. Oxygen

13.Hydrocarbons

13.0.Introduction

13.1. Classification

13.2. Alkanes

13.2.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism

13.2.2. Preparation

13.2.2. Preparation

13.2.2. Preparation

13.2.3. Properties

13.2.3. Properties

13.2.3. Properties

13.2.4. Conformations

13.3. Alkenes

13.3.1. Structre of Double Bond

13.3.2. Nomenclature

13.3.3. Isomerism

13.3.4. Preparation

13.3.5. Properties

13.3.5. Properties

13.4. Alkynes

13.4.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism

13.4.2. Structure of Triple Bond

13.4.3. Preparation

13.4.4. Properties

13.4.4. Properties

13.5. Aromatic Hydrocarbon

13.5.1. Nomenclature and Isomerism

13.5.2. Structure of Benzene

13.5.3. Aromaticity

13.5.4. Preparation of Benzene

13.5.5. Properties

13.6. Carcinogenicity and Toxicity

14.Environmental Chemistry

14.1. Environmental Pollution

14.2. Atmospheric Pollution

14.2.1. Tropospheric Pollution

14.2.2. Stratospheric Pollution

14.3. Water Pollution

14.3.1. Causes for Water Pollution

14.3.2. Internal Standards for Drinking Water

14.4. Soil Pollution

14.4.1. Pesticides

14.5. Industrial Waste

14.6. Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution

14.6.1. Waste Management

14.7. Green Chemistry

14.7.1. Introduction

14.7.2. Green Chemistry in day to day life